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fewer of the elements of life: and labour of good quality; in any
kind; includes always as much intellect and feeling as will fully
and harmoniously regulate the physical force。
In speaking of the value and price of labour; it is necessary
always to understand labour of a given rank and quality; as we
should speak of gold or silver of a given standard。 Bad (that is;
heartless; inexperienced; or senseless) labour cannot be valued;
it is like gold of uncertain alloy; or flawed iron。(24*)
The quality and kind of labour being given; its value; like
that of all other valuable things; is invariable。 But the
quantity of it which must be given for other things is variable:
and in estimating this variation; the price of other things must
always be counted by the quantity of labour; not the price of
labour by the quantity of other things。
Thus; if we want to plant an apple sapling in rocky ground;
it may take two hours' work; in soft ground; perhaps only half an
hour。 Grant the soil equally good for the tree in each case。 Then
the value of the sapling planted by two hours' work is nowise
greater than that of the sapling planted in half an hour。 One
will bear no more fruit than the other。 Also; one half…hour of
work is as valuable as another half…hour; nevertheless the one
sapling has cost four such pieces of work; the other only one。
Now the proper statement of this fact is; not that the labour on
the hard ground is cheaper than on the soft; but that the tree is
dearer。 The exchange value may; or may not; afterwards depend on
this fact。 If other people have plenty of soft ground to plant
in; they will take no cognizance of our two hours' labour; in the
price they will offer for the plant on the rock。 And if; through
want of sufficient botanical science; we have planted an upas
tree instead of an apple; the exchange…value will be a negative
quantity; still less proportionate to the labour expended。
What is commonly called cheapness of labour; signifies;
therefore; in reality; that many obstacles have to be overcome by
it; so that much labour is required to produce a small result。
But this should never be spoken of as cheapness of labour; but as
dearness of the object wrought for。 It would be just as rational
to say that walking was cheap; because we had ten miles to walk
home to our dinner; as that labour was cheap; because we had to
work ten hours to earn it。
The last word which we have to define is 〃Production。〃
I have hitherto spoken of all labour as profitable; because
it is impossible to consider under one head the quality or value
of labour; and its aim。 But labour of the best quality may be
various in aim。 It may be either constructive (〃gathering〃 from
con and struo); as agriculture; nugatory; as jewel…cutting; or
destructive (〃scattering;〃 from de and struo); as war。 It is not;
however; always easy to prove labour; apparently nugatory; to be
actually so;(25*) generally; the formula holds good: 〃he that
gathereth not; scattereth〃; thus; the jeweller's art is probably
very harmful in its ministering to a clumsy and inelegant pride。
So that; finally; I believe nearly all labour may be shortly
divided into positive and negative labour: positive; that which
produces life; negative; that which produces death; the most
directly negative labour being murder; and the most directly
positive; the bearing and rearing of children; so that in the
precise degree in which murder is hateful; on the negative side
of idleness; in the exact degree child…rearing is admirable; on
the positive side of idleness。 For which reason; and because of
the honour that there is in rearing children;(26*) while the wife
is said to be as the vine (for cheering); the children are as the
olive branch; for praise: nor for praise only; but for peace
(because large families can only be reared in times of peace):
though since; in their spreading and voyaging in various
directions; they distribute strength; they are; to the home
strength; as arrives in the hand of the giant striking here;
and there far away。
Labour being thus various in its result; the prosperity of
any nation is in exact proportion to the quantity of labour which
it spends in obtaining and employing means of life。 Observe; I
say; obtaining and employing; that is to say; not merely wisely
producing; but wisely distributing and consuming。 Economists
usually speak as if there were no good in consumption
absolute。(27*) So far from this being so; consumption absolute is
the end; crown; and perfection of production; and wise
consumption is a far more difficult art than wise production。
Twenty people can gain money for one who can use it; and the
vital question; for individual and for nation; is; never 〃how
much do they make?〃 but 〃to what purpose do they spend?〃
The reader may; perhaps; have been surprised at the slight
reference I have hitherto made to 〃capital;〃 and its functions。
It is here the place to define them。
Capital signifies 〃head; or source; or root material〃 it
is material by which some derivative or secondary good is
produced。 It is only capital proper (caput vivum; not caput
mortuum) when it is thus producing something different from
itself。 It is a root; which does not enter into vital function
till it produces something else than a root: namely; fruit。 That
fruit will in time again produce roots; and so all living capital
issues in reproduction of capital; but capital which produces
nothing but capital is only root producing root; bulb issuing in
bulb; never in tulip; seed issuing in seed; never in bread。 The
Political Economy of Europe has hitherto devoted itself wholly to
the multiplication; or (less even) the aggregation; of bulbs。 It
never saw; nor conceived; such a thing as a tulip。 Nay; boiled
bulbs they might have been glass bulbs Prince Rupert's
drops; consummated in powder (well; if it were glass…powder and
not gunpowder); for any end or meaning the economists had in
defining the laws of aggregation。 We will try and get a clearer
notion of them。
The best and simplest general type of capital is a well…made
ploughshare。 Now; if that ploughshare did nothing but beget other
ploughshares; in a polypous manner; however the great cluster
of polypous plough might glitter in the sun; it would have lost
its function of capital。 It becomes true capital only by another
kind of splendour; when it is seen 〃splendescere sulco;〃 to
grow bright in the furrow; rather with diminution of its
substance; than addition; by the noble friction。 And the true
home question; to every capitalist and to every nation; is not;
〃how many ploughs have you?〃 but; 〃where are your furrows?〃 not
〃how quickly will this capital reproduce itself?〃 but;
〃what will it do during reproduction?〃 What substance will it
furnish; good for life? what work construct; protective of life?
if none; its own reproduction is useless if worse than none;
(for capital may destroy life as well as support it); its own
reproduction is worse than useless; it is merely an advance from
Tisiphone; on mortgage not a profit by any means。
Not a profit; as the ancients truly saw; and showed in the
type of Ixion; for capital is the head; or fountain head of
wealth the 〃well…head〃 of wealth; as the clouds are the
well…heads of rain; but when clouds are without water; and only
beget clouds; they issue in wrath at last; instead of rain; and
in lightning instead of harvest; whence Ixion is said first to
have invited his guests to a banquet; and then made them fall
into a pit; (as also Demas' silver mine;) after which; to show
the rage of riches passing from lust of pleasure to lust of
power; yet power not truly understood; Ixion is said to have
desired Juno; and instead; embracing a cloud (or phantasm); to
have begotten the Centaurs; the power of mere wealth being; in
itself; as the embrace of a shadow; comfortless; (so also
〃Ephraim feedeth on wind and followth after the east wind;〃 or
〃that which is not〃 Prov。 xxiii。 5; and again Dante's Geryon;
the type of avaricious fraud; as he flies; gathers the air up
with retractile claws; 〃l'aer a se raccolse〃(28*)) but in its
offspring; a mingling of the brutal with the human nature; human
in sagacity using both intellect and arrow; but brutal in its
body and hoof; for consuming; and trampling down。 For which sin
Ixion is at l