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fewer　of　the　elements　of　life：　and　labour　of　good　quality；　in　any



kind；　includes　always　as　much　intellect　and　feeling　as　will　fully



and　harmoniously　regulate　the　physical　force。



　　　　In　speaking　of　the　value　and　price　of　labour；　it　is　necessary



always　to　understand　labour　of　a　given　rank　and　quality；　as　we



should　speak　of　gold　or　silver　of　a　given　standard。　Bad　（that　is；



heartless；　inexperienced；　or　senseless）　labour　cannot　be　valued；



it　is　like　gold　of　uncertain　alloy；　or　flawed　iron。（24*）



　　　　The　quality　and　kind　of　labour　being　given；　its　value；　like



that　of　all　other　valuable　things；　is　invariable。　But　the



quantity　of　it　which　must　be　given　for　other　things　is　variable：



and　in　estimating　this　variation；　the　price　of　other　things　must



always　be　counted　by　the　quantity　of　labour；　not　the　price　of



labour　by　the　quantity　of　other　things。



　　　　Thus；　if　we　want　to　plant　an　apple　sapling　in　rocky　ground；



it　may　take　two　hours'　work；　in　soft　ground；　perhaps　only　half　an



hour。　Grant　the　soil　equally　good　for　the　tree　in　each　case。　Then



the　value　of　the　sapling　planted　by　two　hours'　work　is　nowise



greater　than　that　of　the　sapling　planted　in　half　an　hour。　One



will　bear　no　more　fruit　than　the　other。　Also；　one　half…hour　of



work　is　as　valuable　as　another　half…hour；　nevertheless　the　one



sapling　has　cost　four　such　pieces　of　work；　the　other　only　one。



Now　the　proper　statement　of　this　fact　is；　not　that　the　labour　on



the　hard　ground　is　cheaper　than　on　the　soft；　but　that　the　tree　is



dearer。　The　exchange　value　may；　or　may　not；　afterwards　depend　on



this　fact。　If　other　people　have　plenty　of　soft　ground　to　plant



in；　they　will　take　no　cognizance　of　our　two　hours'　labour；　in　the



price　they　will　offer　for　the　plant　on　the　rock。　And　if；　through



want　of　sufficient　botanical　science；　we　have　planted　an　upas



tree　instead　of　an　apple；　the　exchange…value　will　be　a　negative



quantity；　still　less　proportionate　to　the　labour　expended。



　　　　What　is　commonly　called　cheapness　of　labour；　signifies；



therefore；　in　reality；　that　many　obstacles　have　to　be　overcome　by



it；　so　that　much　labour　is　required　to　produce　a　small　result。



But　this　should　never　be　spoken　of　as　cheapness　of　labour；　but　as



dearness　of　the　object　wrought　for。　It　would　be　just　as　rational



to　say　that　walking　was　cheap；　because　we　had　ten　miles　to　walk



home　to　our　dinner；　as　that　labour　was　cheap；　because　we　had　to



work　ten　hours　to　earn　it。



　　　　The　last　word　which　we　have　to　define　is　〃Production。〃



　　　　I　have　hitherto　spoken　of　all　labour　as　profitable；　because



it　is　impossible　to　consider　under　one　head　the　quality　or　value



of　labour；　and　its　aim。　But　labour　of　the　best　quality　may　be



various　in　aim。　It　may　be　either　constructive　（〃gathering〃　from



con　and　struo）；　as　agriculture；　nugatory；　as　jewel…cutting；　or



destructive　（〃scattering；〃　from　de　and　struo）；　as　war。　It　is　not；



however；　always　easy　to　prove　labour；　apparently　nugatory；　to　be



actually　so；（25*）　generally；　the　formula　holds　good：　〃he　that



gathereth　not；　scattereth〃；　thus；　the　jeweller's　art　is　probably



very　harmful　in　its　ministering　to　a　clumsy　and　inelegant　pride。



So　that；　finally；　I　believe　nearly　all　labour　may　be　shortly



divided　into　positive　and　negative　labour：　positive；　that　which



produces　life；　negative；　that　which　produces　death；　the　most



directly　negative　labour　being　murder；　and　the　most　directly



positive；　the　bearing　and　rearing　of　children；　so　that　in　the



precise　degree　in　which　murder　is　hateful；　on　the　negative　side



of　idleness；　in　the　exact　degree　child…rearing　is　admirable；　on



the　positive　side　of　idleness。　For　which　reason；　and　because　of



the　honour　that　there　is　in　rearing　children；（26*）　while　the　wife



is　said　to　be　as　the　vine　（for　cheering）；　the　children　are　as　the



olive　branch；　for　praise：　nor　for　praise　only；　but　for　peace



（because　large　families　can　only　be　reared　in　times　of　peace）：



though　since；　in　their　spreading　and　voyaging　in　various



directions；　they　distribute　strength；　they　are；　to　the　home



strength；　as　arrives　in　the　hand　of　the　giant　　striking　here；



and　there　far　away。



　　　　Labour　being　thus　various　in　its　result；　the　prosperity　of



any　nation　is　in　exact　proportion　to　the　quantity　of　labour　which



it　spends　in　obtaining　and　employing　means　of　life。　Observe；　　I



say；　obtaining　and　employing；　that　is　to　say；　not　merely　wisely



producing；　but　wisely　distributing　and　consuming。　Economists



usually　speak　as　if　there　were　no　good　in　consumption



absolute。（27*）　So　far　from　this　being　so；　consumption　absolute　is



the　end；　crown；　and　perfection　of　production；　and　wise



consumption　is　a　far　more　difficult　art　than　wise　production。



Twenty　people　can　gain　money　for　one　who　can　use　it；　and　the



vital　question；　for　individual　and　for　nation；　is；　never　〃how



much　do　they　make？〃　but　〃to　what　purpose　do　they　spend？〃



　　　　The　reader　may；　perhaps；　have　been　surprised　at　the　slight



reference　I　have　hitherto　made　to　〃capital；〃　and　its　functions。



It　is　here　the　place　to　define　them。



　　　　Capital　signifies　〃head；　or　source；　or　root　material〃　　it



is　material　by　which　some　derivative　or　secondary　good　is



produced。　It　is　only　capital　proper　（caput　vivum；　not　caput



mortuum）　when　it　is　thus　producing　something　different　from



itself。　It　is　a　root；　which　does　not　enter　into　vital　function



till　it　produces　something　else　than　a　root：　namely；　fruit。　That



fruit　will　in　time　again　produce　roots；　and　so　all　living　capital



issues　in　reproduction　of　capital；　but　capital　which　produces



nothing　but　capital　is　only　root　producing　root；　bulb　issuing　in



bulb；　never　in　tulip；　seed　issuing　in　seed；　never　in　bread。　The



Political　Economy　of　Europe　has　hitherto　devoted　itself　wholly　to



the　multiplication；　or　（less　even）　the　aggregation；　of　bulbs。　It



never　saw；　nor　conceived；　such　a　thing　as　a　tulip。　Nay；　boiled



bulbs　they　might　have　been　　glass　bulbs　　Prince　Rupert's



drops；　consummated　in　powder　（well；　if　it　were　glass…powder　and



not　gunpowder）；　for　any　end　or　meaning　the　economists　had　in



defining　the　laws　of　aggregation。　We　will　try　and　get　a　clearer



notion　of　them。



　　　　The　best　and　simplest　general　type　of　capital　is　a　well…made



ploughshare。　Now；　if　that　ploughshare　did　nothing　but　beget　other



ploughshares；　in　a　polypous　manner；　　however　the　great　cluster



of　polypous　plough　might　glitter　in　the　sun；　it　would　have　lost



its　function　of　capital。　It　becomes　true　capital　only　by　another



kind　of　splendour；　　when　it　is　seen　〃splendescere　sulco；〃　to



grow　bright　in　the　furrow；　rather　with　diminution　of　its



substance；　than　addition；　by　the　noble　friction。　And　the　true



home　question；　to　every　capitalist　and　to　every　nation；　is　not；



〃how　many　ploughs　have　you？〃　but；　〃where　are　your　furrows？〃　not



　〃how　quickly　will　this　capital　reproduce　itself？〃　　but；



〃what　will　it　do　during　reproduction？〃　What　substance　will　it



furnish；　good　for　life？　what　work　construct；　protective　of　life？



if　none；　its　own　reproduction　is　useless　　if　worse　than　none；



（for　capital　may　destroy　life　as　well　as　support　it）；　its　own



reproduction　is　worse　than　useless；　it　is　merely　an　advance　from



Tisiphone；　on　mortgage　　not　a　profit　by　any　means。



　　　　Not　a　profit；　as　the　ancients　truly　saw；　and　showed　in　the



type　of　Ixion；　　for　capital　is　the　head；　or　fountain　head　of



wealth　　the　〃well…head〃　of　wealth；　as　the　clouds　are　the



well…heads　of　rain；　but　when　clouds　are　without　water；　and　only



beget　clouds；　they　issue　in　wrath　at　last；　instead　of　rain；　and



in　lightning　instead　of　harvest；　whence　Ixion　is　said　first　to



have　invited　his　guests　to　a　banquet；　and　then　made　them　fall



into　a　pit；　（as　also　Demas'　silver　mine；）　after　which；　to　show



the　rage　of　riches　passing　from　lust　of　pleasure　to　lust　of



power；　yet　power　not　truly　understood；　Ixion　is　said　to　have



desired　Juno；　and　instead；　embracing　a　cloud　（or　phantasm）；　to



have　begotten　the　Centaurs；　the　power　of　mere　wealth　being；　in



itself；　as　the　embrace　of　a　shadow；　　comfortless；　（so　also



〃Ephraim　feedeth　on　wind　and　followth　after　the　east　wind；〃　or



〃that　which　is　not〃　　Prov。　xxiii。　5；　and　again　Dante's　Geryon；



the　type　of　avaricious　fraud；　as　he　flies；　gathers　the　air　up



with　retractile　claws；　　〃l'aer　a　se　raccolse〃（28*））　but　in　its



offspring；　a　mingling　of　the　brutal　with　the　human　nature；　human



in　sagacity　　using　both　intellect　and　arrow；　but　brutal　in　its



body　and　hoof；　for　consuming；　and　trampling　down。　For　which　sin



Ixion　is　at　l