the idea of justice in political economy-第7节

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justice　which　gives　each　one　his　share；　is　confronted　in　the
field　of　social　policy　by　some　other　ideas。　These　are　in　the
first　place　the　idea　of　community；　which　allots　to　the　whole　that
which　belongs　to　it；　which　regards　the　promotion　of　the　whole
more　than　the　rights　of　the　parts；　in　the　secund　place　the　idea
of　benevolence；　which　in　its　consciousness　of　community　gives
more　to　the　poor　man　than　he　can　justly　demand；　finally；　the　idea
of　liberty；　which　permits　each　part　to　act　freely；　placing
numerous　limits　upon　justice　and　the　community。　That　this　results
in　many　restrictions　upon　the　exercise　of　justice　we　will　here
only　suggest；　not　demonstrate。　But　the　fact　always　remains　that
the　constantly　growing　and　developing　conceptions　of　justice
extend　their　influence　daily　and　hourly　into　the　activity　of
practical　life；　that　in　the　form　of　moral　and　religious　sense　of
duty；　social　custom　and　actual　law；　they　regulate　and　modify　rude
forces　and　selfish　impulses。　The　conflict　between　interest　and
moral　ideas　will　of　course　never　cease；　but　only　be　moderated。
All　human　life　only　exists　under　the　presumption　of　this　never
ceasing　internal　combat。　There　are　always　claims　of　economic
justice　which　appear　to　be　only　bold　ideal　dreams；　but　there　are
always　many　which　have　conquered　in　life；　or　at　least　have
obtained　for　themselves　the　majorities；　the　leading　powers。　And
to　them　the　more　refined　economic　culture　owes　its　humane
character。
　　　　Practically　the　most　important　form　in　which　these　ideas
conquer　is　that　of　custom　and　of　law。　Without　these　formal　means
the　conceptions　and　judgments　of　justice　cannot　easily　be
realized；　cannot　easily　be　transmitted　from　generation　to
generation。　Custom　and　law　lend　permanence　and　stability　to　ideas
of　morality；　and　effect　the　agreement　of　men　about　that　which
ought　to　be。　From　the　moral　disposition　of　men　arise　rules　of
custom；　which　as　distinct　rules　of　life　curb　the　wild　play　of
passions　and　impulses。　Custom　is　that　which　we　regularly
practice；　originating　in　experience　and　recollection；　in　the
judicious　conception　of　common　purpose　and　in　moral　reflection。
As　crude　as　custom　may。　originally　be；　its　rule　is　always　an
improvement　in　comparison　with　the　purely　natural　play　of
instincts。　It　appears　to　the　growing　generation　the　appropriate；
necessary；　just　and　obvious　condition　of　all　intercourse；　all
division　of　labor；　all　social　existence。　As　an　independent　power
it　confronts　the　individuals　and　their　impulses　and　becomes　the
foundation　of　all　morals；　all　religion；　as　well　as　all　rights　and
all　institutions。
　　　　Originally　inflexible　and　relentless　in　itself　custom　later
becomes　more　variable　in　individual　morality；　adapts　itself　to
conditions；　though　it　still　exacts　the　more　noble　and　sublime；　in
the　positive　law；　which　is　gradually　separated　from　custom；　it
becomes　a　rule；　demanding　less；　but　for　this　〃less〃　a　much
stricter　obedience。　Custom　in　higher　stages　of　culture　only
prevails　through　fear　of　reproach；　of　contempt；　of　social
ostracism。　Formal　law　only　chooses　the　rules　of　social　life　most
important　for　common　interest；　but　enforces　their　observation；
when　necessary；　through　the　physical　compulsion　which　the　whole
can　exercise　over　the　individual。
　　　　Internally　of　the　same　nature　as　morals　and　custom；　i。e。；
originating　equally　in　social　ideals　and　primarily　in　the　idea　of
justice；　the　law　adopts　through　its　external；　formal　nature　the
character　of　something　independent；　in　consequence　of　which
independence　the　law　can　only　uphold　justice　within　its　own　range
and　can　only　execute　it　in　a　certain　sense。
　　　　To　the　essence　of　right　and　law；　as　it　has　been　evolved　from
religion；　morals　and　customs　by　an　experience　of　many　thousand
years；　belongs　above　all　the　uniform　and　sure　execution　of　the
rules　which　have　once　been　confirmed　universally　and　uniformly。
Without　uniform　application；　without　a　sure　administration；　law
does　not　remain　law。　To　achieve　this　is　extraordinary　difficult；
on　account　of　the　manifold　complexity　of　life。　The　goal　we　can
only　reach　by　limiting　ourselves　to　that　which　is　of　the　most
importance　and　by　long；　laborious；　logical　brain…work；　which
reduces　the　rules　of　law　to　a　few　clear　and　universally
intelligible　sentences。　The　exercise　of　the　judicial　power　is
raised　by　this　quality　above　the　level　of　personal　feelings　and
changing　disposition；　laws　are　guided　by　it　to　a　safe　and　uniform
application。　The　more　severely　law　interferes；　subordinates
details；　proceeds　radically　and　relentlessly；　the　more　important
this　formal　criterion　grows。　The　uniform　and　just　application　of
law　becomes　so　important　that　the　imperfect　law　whose　just
application　is　secured　is　preferred　to　the　more　perfect　and
materially　more　just　law　whose　application　varies；　becomes
uncertain　and　thus　unjust　everywhere　or　in　the　hands　of　judges
and　officials　of　to…day。　Nearly。　all　positive　law；　therefore；　and
especially　written　law；　which　the　thinking　mind　generates　by　the
machinery　of　legislation；　which　has　not　as　customary　law　been
derived　from　use；　is　inflexible；　feeble；　confined　to　outward；
clearly　visible　marks；　it　cannot　regard　individualities　and　their
natures；　it　deals　with　rough　averages。　Instead　of　testing
individuals；　for　example；　it　divides　adults　and　minors　according
to　a　fixed　age；　approximately　correct　for　the　totality；　but　more
or　less　arbitrary　in　regard　to　the　individual。　It　calls　all　adult
men　to　the　polls；　not　because　they　are　really　of　equal　importance
to　the　commonwealth；　but　because　the　application　of　every　more
complicated　distinction　would　result　practically　in　greater
injustices。　Thus　law　becomes　often　inequitable　and　materially
unjust；　not　because　formal　justice　is　superior；　but　because　it　is
more　easily　attained　in　the　existing　stage　of　civilization。　This
gives　rise　to　thousands　of　conflicts　between　material　and　formal
…　justice；　which　are　so　often　decisive　for　the　practical
questions　of　distribution　of　wealth　and　incomes。
　　　　If　there　is　any　demand　of　justice　which　it　is　desired　to
introduce　into　our　institutions　through　the　channel　of　ordinary
reform　by　positive　law；　it　is　not　only　necessary　that　the　demand
be　recognized　and　desired　by　the　best　as　right；　that　it　must　have
become　custom　in　certain　places；　that　it　must　have　overcome　the
resisting　powers　of　egoism；　of　listless　indolence　which　clings　to
tradition；　that　it　should　have　triumphed　over　the　eventual
obstruction　of　the　other　ethical　ideas；　which　tending　toward
other　goals；　often　may　be　an　obstacle；　that　it　should　have　become
a　dogma　of　ruling　parties　and　statesmen。　No；　it　must　also　have
evolved　the　qualities　of　a　practicable　formal　law；　it　must　have
reached　fixed　boundaries；　clear　characteristics；　determined
qualities　and　proportions；　it　must　have　traversed　the　long
journey　from　a　conception　of　right　to　a　clearly　defined　and
limited　provision　of　law；　the　fundamental　judgments　of　value　must
be　condensed　to　a　fixed　conventional　scale；　which；　as　a　simple
expression　of　complicated　and　manifold　conditions　still　grasps
their　average　justly。　In　short　the　mechanism　of　positive　law
limits　every　execution　of　material　justice。　We　have　our　formal
right　only　at　the　expense　of　a　partial　material　injustice。
　　　　A　demand　of　justice　in　rewarding　great　inventors　can　to…day
only　become　positive　law　in　patent　legislation；　or　in　the　public
arrangement　of　a　system　of　premiums；　in　which　the　method　of
execution　is　just　as　important　as　the　principle。　A　demand　of
justice　in　regard　to　a　progressive　income　tax　can　count　upon
sympathy　only　when　the　demand　is　based　on　definite　figures　which
correspond　to　the　average　feeling　of　right　of　to…day。　The　demand
of　justice　that　the　employer　should　provide　better　for　his
laborers　becomes　practicable；　when　we　demand　in　detail　and
definitely　that　the　employer　carry　this　or　that　responsibility
for　accidents；　that　he　put　such　and　such　a　contribution　into　the
benefit　fund；　that　he　accept　the　verdict　of　umpires　with　regard
to　wages。　That　the　laborers　should　share　in　the　profits　of　the
enterprise　can　be　discussed　as　a　legal　measure　only　when　definite
experience　shows　the　possibility　of　a　just　execution。　Otherwise
such　a　law；　like　many　other　well…meant　propositions　for　the
improvement　of　the　condition　of　the　lower　classes；　would；　in
consequence　of　the　violation　of　formal　justice；　lead　to
arbitrariness；　to　favoritism；　to　the　discontent　of　the　classes
concerned。　This　is　confirmed　by　all　deeper　knowledge　of　the
results　of　the　administration　of　our　poor　laws。　The　poor　law　is
the　most　important　piece　of　socialism　which　the　German　social
organization　contains。　It　is　a　piece　of　socialism　which　we　could
not　spare　for　the　time　being；　because　we　do　not　know　a　better
substitute；　nor　yet　how　to　meet　otherwise　by　more　perfect
institution　is　the　inevitable　demand　of　justice；　that　every
fellow…being　be　protected　from　starvation。　The　drawback　of　this
poor　law　is　the　absolute　impossibility　of　enforcing　it　in　a
formally　and　materially　just　way。　Arbitrariness；　chance；　red　tape
govern　it；　and　therefore　the　assistance　given　has　in　many　cases
such　unfavorable　psychological　effects；　leading　to　laziness